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DIRECTIONS.
Read the following excerpt below and prepare to discuss: HISTORY: DATES AND EVENTS, RIGHT? FROM COLUMBUS IN 1492 TO whatever happened when the course ends, right? Not really. There is a big difference between chronology-dates and events-and history, which is the study of the past. The key word here is study. Chronology is a list. It can be memorized. (It's no fun, but it can be done.) But history, as it is taught in most colleges and universities, cannot simply be committed to memory. It is as much about the relationships between events and between people as it is about dates and summary facts. The study of history, then, is not primarily a matter of memory-although memory is important-but of analysis and critical thinking. Analytical thinking… is more important than rote memory efforts or guess work. In today's global and highly competitive marketplace, the history student cannot afford to be lacking in analytical prowess. Examining historical dilemmas and controversies, many of which are relevant to the present, assists in building that prowess. -Timothy P. Maga, Bradley University Analysis requires gathering and examining the facts of history and drawing conclusions about the relationships among them especially cause-and-effect relationships-and their significance. You would be quite correct in recalling, for example, that the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor was attacked by the Japanese on December 7,1941. But, unless you are answering a multiple-choice or fill-in-the-blank test question, this response will do little to impress a history professor. You would need to go on to talk about the significance of the event- primarily how it propelled the United States into World War II. Further analysis might go on to consider just why it took such a devastating attack to shake the United States out of neutrality, and it might also cover how the attack, far from demoralizing or intimidating Americans, unified them in purpose and resolve. Thus history professors expect you two attain two broad goals:
>To master a body of historical knowledge-the events and dates,
the "facts” Reaching the first goal requires reading assigned texts and attending classes and lectures. Reaching the second goal requires the following:
>Undertaking reading and research projects in addition to
textbook assignments. You can see from this list that although your professor certainly expects you to read assigned material and to pay attention in class, she expects even more that you will not simply "absorb" material, but develop at least five important skills. That history requires more than hitting the books and taking lecture notes comes as a shock to some students. They expect to be required to develop special "skills" in art classes, say, or in physical education and sports electives. But in history? Don't worry about the details. It is more important to have a grasp of the basic issues and of how they change over time. -Colin Gordon, University of Iowa Well, take a good look at that list of skills. Some students grumble that history is a bunch of facts about dead people: "I'm going to be a corporate lawyer. Why do I need to memorize Woodrow Wilson's 'Fourteen Points'?" We could argue with such a grumbler that learning the facts of history helps us understand who we are as Americans. And we could also repeat what the philosopher George Santayana famously said: "Those who do not know history are condemned to relive it." But, instead, let's concede the point. It is true: familiarity with the international policies of a long-dead president may not someday help you to negotiate a corporate contract. Fortunately, an introductory history course presents an opportunity to do much more than memorize facts about the dead. Success in the course requires developing and honing that list of skills-and the application of these skills is hardly limited to the academic study of history. What lawyer (or corporate executive, or salesperson, or teacher, or physician) could fail to benefit from an ability to find information quickly and efficiently (develop research skills), to understand and evaluate information (develop critical reading skills), to do something productive with information gathered (develop analytical thinking skills), to present information clearly, persuasively, and effectively (develop discussion and oral presentation skills and analytical writing skills)? In short, most of what your history professor expects from you is to develop the skills of a good student-not a passive absorber of information, but an active, thinking student of information. These skills will help you in all of your course work, and, even more important, are essential to any reasonably high -level job in the "real world" beyond college. Engaged actively, critically, and analytically, the facts of history come alive and are far more interesting than any novel or movie for the simple reason that they are real, they affect our lives, and they shape the destiny of our nation and our world. That's great news. However, history courses do present certain pitfalls. Do NOT sit and memorize all the facts and dates you can. Successful students do not worry about facts and dates. They try to integrate the material they already have into coherent wholes. They come up with explanations of relationships between issues. Come into the exam with a few ideas that explain the relationship between economics and religion, or the problems of political ideology, or race and ethnicity. Odds are, you can make at least one of your ideas fit into one of the questions offered. -Jason M. Barrett, University of Michigan The most common trap into which students fall is mistaking opinion for analysis. You will find your professor repeatedly asking you "what you think" about a certain event or set of data. For example, "Was the United States justified in dropping atomic bombs on Japan during World War II? What do you think?" Perhaps you have a strong opinion on this topic. Perhaps you have just read John Hershey's Hiroshima and have learned something of the horrors wrought by a nuclear detonation. So you think the United States shouldn't have dropped the bombs. Or perhaps you've just read an account of the way in which Japanese soldiers fought to the death rather than surrender. Or perhaps you've encountered an account of the wholesale Japanese torture of Chinese civilians during the war. Perhaps such information inclines you to approve of the use of nuclear weapons against such an enemy. On the other hand, perhaps you just feel that dropping the bomb was the wrong or the right thing to do. However you have formed your opinion, you are certainly entitled to it. But will expressing that opinion earn you points in a university history class? Probably not-unless you transform that opinion into analysis. This requires supporting your opinion with facts, and not just one or two facts casually encountered (that Hershey book or a single article on the treatment of Chinese civilians), but a whole body of relevant facts. For example, if you believe that the United States was justified in using the atomic bomb in World War II, you might bring into evidence casualty figures for the Pacific island campaigns, you might point out projections as to the cost of both Allied and Japanese lives if an invasion of Japan were attempted, you might point out the moral and ethical pressure on President Truman to use all means at his disposal to end this costliest of wars quickly and with whatever means were at hand, no matter how terrible. Many students in discussion sections of introductory history courses become frustrated because the instructor repeatedly asks "what do you think?" only to shoot down an opinion because it lacks supporting facts. You can avoid this frustration by understanding that when you are asked "what you think;' you are being asked for an interpretation of fact rather than a mere opinion. Interpretation of fact involves developing the skills listed a moment ago. Let's consider those skills briefly. We live in an age flooded with information. Television, movies, books, and the Internet all yield a continual flow. Not only the best students, but the most powerful and influential people these days are the ones who know how to snatch the most useful bits of information out of the deluge. Research skills involve knowing where to look for information, as well as determining what kinds of information to look for. Your professor expects you to develop such skills, beginning with basic library skills and progressing through the intelligent use of bibliographies, reader's guides, indexes, and even manuscript material. Perhaps you've seen one of those demonstrations common in psych courses, prelaw classes, or introductory criminal justice courses. The instructor is lecturing as usual at the front of the class. Suddenly, someone rushes into the classroom, does and says something outrageous, then promptly exits. After the tumult dies down, the professor turns to the class and asks the students to jot down answers to a set of questions about what they had just witnessed: What was the "intruder" wearing? What was the intruder's gender? How tall? Fat? Thin? What, exactly, did the intruder say? And so on. Invariably, these witnesses will return an array of different and often contradictory answers to the same set of questions. If there are thirty witnesses, there are bound to be thirty quite distinct responses. One person will express certainty that the intruder was a man. Another that she was a woman-dressed in a red sweater. No, says another, it was a pink blouse. Actually, a bright red scarf with a white shirt. And so on.
Questlon: What key competencies, skills, quality of thought,
and/or specific kinds of information are you looking for in
students' responses to examinations? Books, diaries, manuscripts, personal accounts, all the written records of history are human perspectives on events. For many and varied reasons, these perspectives will differ, even when they focus on the same set of events-just as eyewitness descriptions will vary from person to person. Your instructor will expect you to develop some skill in reading the materials of history critically. If the question is "Was the Civil War fought over the issue of slavery?" and you limit your supporting readings to the extreme pronouncements of South Carolina's John Calhoun, you'll answer no. If, however, you focus exclusively on the writings of radical northern abolitionists, you'll emerge with an unequivocal yes. And if you look at what Abraham Lincoln said on the subject, you'll come out somewhere in the middle. Critical reading requires weighing the arguments made by authors, understanding their motives, and knowing "where they're coming from." Your instructor expects you to question what you read, not to take it at face value. We've all had the discouraging experience of plowing through a book, reading every word, closing the cover, and then realizing that we have comprehended absolutely none of it. Finishing all reading assignments in a timely manner is important, but doing so is of little value if you fail to think about what you've read. The main skill is communication-both written and oral. [I want to help) students to develop critical thinking and effective communication skills while deploying historical data from the American Experience. Students are also encouraged to be broad-minded and sensitive in their approach to the variety of ways in which people experienced the past. They are also encouraged to respect each other's ideas and claims, while nonetheless feeling free to challenge each other, as long as they have data to back up their opposing claims. -Stephanie E. Yuhl, Valparaiso Now, the phrase "think about" is pretty vague and abstract. Let's be more specific about what to do with what you've read. Connect one fact, one event, to another. Maybe you know the dates for the Battle of Gettysburg. Maybe you know the names of the chief commanders in that battle. Now, why was it fought? What happened as a result of the Union victory? What did the battle lead to? What might have happened had the South prevailed in the battle? What would that have led to? Reading critically and thinking analytically are important skills, but they're pretty lonely. The products of critical analysis are intended to be shared. Besides, until you communicate your observations, thoughts, and conclusions, your instructor has no way to evaluate your performance and progress in the course. For this reason, your instructor expects you to develop skills in discussing issues and presenting arguments.
Students should… develop a more complex view of the different
issues relevant to U.S. history and be able to ascertain their
own personal relationships to these issues. Perhaps most
important, students should refine their skills in creating a
logical argument and substantiating it with valid evidence. All
students are verbally instructed during the first week of
classes on how best to prepare for examinations and research
papers. Besides standard reminders concerning the taking of
class lecture notes and scheduling of text readings, students
are prompted to approach all assignments by considering at least
two arguments. When analping issues such as U.S. policy toward
Native Americans, or public opinion toward the Civil War,
students should view the topic from all major perspectives
before forming their own personal opinion. The goal is to
convince students that much of what they learn about history is
interpretation, and much like history professionals, students
themselves should develop an interpretation based on all
available perspectives and evidence.
Class discussion is a balancing act. It is, unfortunately, the
rare class or discussion section in which all students
participate. Typically, the majority hang back and take notes
while the instructor chats with a vocal minority. Your
instructor expects you to participate in class discussion.
Usually, the more you participate, the better. But let's pay
attention to the word usually. It's all too easy to fall in love
with the sound of your own voice. Don't monopolize the
discussion. Listen to the interpretations of others. Also,
practice courtesy. Don't patronize, mock, or put anyone down for
a remark that is made. Learn to focus your arguments on other
arguments, not on personalities. Instead of saying, “Joe, you're
“Well, Joe, what about the cost of the New Deal programs?" The object of class discussion is not to win an argument, but to explore all sides of an issue. Keep the issues in the foreground, and personalities out of the picture completely. Writing comes hard for many students, and the very phrase “analytical writing" can be intimidating. Good analytical writing requires thorough familiarity with your subject, a willingness to find and use the right words, and an ability to organize your ideas. These three elements require dedication and hard work; however, there are some shortcuts you should take advantage of. First, when you are responding to essay questions in an exam or other assignment, look at the question carefully. What exactly does it ask? Is it made up of a number of component questions-subquestions? In what order do these occur? Look at the question, and try to use it to structure your essay response. That is, if the question asks you to discuss points 1,2,3, and 4, structure your essay in that order. If it asks for 2, 4,3, and 1, try to respond accordingly, answering 2,4,3, and 1 rather than 1,2,3, and 4. Second, most writing about history is naturally chronological. Unless you have a very good reason to do otherwise, organize your writing chronologically, following the order of events. While it is true that introductory history courses challenge you to develop a number of advanced skills, you will find that extra time and effort devoted to honing these skills is time very well invested. Not only can you expect a high level of performance in history class, but you will find these skills of thought and expression basic to just about every other course you take. So far, we have discussed some general expectations your history instructor is likely to have. Let's look at some important expectations that are more specific to the subject of history. You will probably hear a good deal of talk about the "historical method:' The historical method is more a habit of thought than a specific method. It's learning ways to help distinguish truth from distortion and outright falsehood. It's practicing how to separate opinion from interpretation based on fact. It's a habit of looking at events in terms of cause and effect. You will be exposed to a variety of historical sources, ranging from primary sources-the equivalent of eyewitness accounts (just remember how unreliable eyewitnesses can be!)-to secondary sources (mainly books and articles written after-the-facts by historians). You will have to become accustomed to assessing and evaluating your sources; so that you can judge their reliability. And let's not forget facts. The one thing most history instructors do not want is a classroom full of students parroting names and dates. So they tend to deemphasize facts and rote learning. Yet the one fact that the history student cannot escape is that facts are the elements, the building blocks, of history. You will find it easier to comprehend and retain the facts of history if, as you read, you ask yourself the five w's: Who? Where? When? What? Why? When you encounter a name of a person (who), put him in his place (where) and time (when). Associate him with some action, statement, or position (what), and be prepared to answer why he did or said or believed whatever he did, said, or believed. This is the kind of five-dimensional thinking your instructor expects. It takes work, but it also makes history come alive. People, after all, aren't flat figures. They're living, breathing beings: multi-dimensional.
There is something else your instructor expects you to do with
the information you gather: make it your own. Many people read
themselves to sleep at night. Curl up with a good book, read a
few pages, nod off. Well, reading is one of life's great
pleasures, and it can be most soothing. The object of reading
your history texts, however, is not sleep. Get out of the habit
of reading passively, of With business and government hiring more history majors and minors than ever before, it is essential, I believe, that students have a decent background in analytical writing. Their ability to argue a position clearly is important to on-the-job success after graduation. Hence, my stress on analytical essay exams versus the multiple guess approach or even the short-answer format. For too long, the history course has been associated with the multiple choice/true-or-false exam, thereby keeping the student away from analytical thinking and more involved in rote memory efforts. -Timothy P. Maga, Bradley University
Finally, don't rely exclusively on words. The language of
history encompasses maps, charts, graphs, diagrams, and other
illustrations in addition to words. Take the time to study and
understand any maps that you find in your textbook. Geography
is central to history, which is, after all, the story of trade
patterns, borders, immigration, climate, and invasion. Geography
and the tools of geography are important to understanding such
events and movements. Population figures, economic statistics,
and the like are also important clues to historical reality.
When you encounter such data, think about their significance.
Draw conclusions from geography and from the numbers associated
with geography, The study of history is challenging, and, make no mistake, you are expected to master a good many facts. But, even more important, you are expected to make those facts sufficiently your own so that you can use them to construct plausible historical interpretations. More than in most introductory-level academic subjects, you are required to exercise judgment, especially in evaluating motives and biases. And to a greater degree than in many other courses, you are called on to present facts and the interpretation of facts in an orderly and persuasive manner. Does all this sound a bit overwhelming? Well, there is an upside to a history course, too. While the study of history calls for many skills, the subject also appeals to interests that probably come naturally to you. Whatever else history consists of, it is a collection of many stories-and most of us enjoy a good story. History also appeals to natural curiosity and the desire most of us have to discover something of our collective past-where we, as a nation, come from. While you develop the challenging skills the study of history requires, be sure not to let go of the many pleasures history offers. |
